Image: street in the historical part of the Escale neighbourhood.

Conclusion

This research looked at young adults in Ziguinchor, Senegal, through the scopes of the transmission of violence and duress with the main research question; how does the Casamançais urban youth perceive peace & crisis in the region, in its absence or presence and considering the temporality of crisis? Even though the majority of people from the sample of this research said that the Casamance Conflict is something that they have no association with as it is a thing of the past, it can be argued that the events from it still affect them in their daily lives. 

Considering how the conflict is perceived among the local young adults in Ziguinchor, two broad narratives appeared, which are divided by those who are local to the region and those who have moved to Ziguinchor at a later point in their lives. The young men who were born in the region see the conflict as a struggle of the previous generation and generally, as events belonging to the past. Some approached discussions about the conflict from a humourous angle, joking about the rebels that are still hiding in the region whereas others might sympathise with the original ideas of the MFDC but do not see the continuation of violence as a legitimate way to gain recognition for the region. The general narrative in this group is that after approximately four decades of violence, the conflict should be brought to a definite end, preferably through a dialogue between local leaders in the Casamance and those in Dakar.

The second, smaller group of newcomers who were interviewed had a different perspective than the local young adults. These three men all arrived in Ziguinchor for work-related reasons and said that they associated the region more with the conflict before moving to the city. Although they have a positive experience in the city, these men said that they have not been to the more rural areas of the Casamance and prefer to stay in the city. This still shows a contrast between how these two groups perceive the region and its conflict. This can be explained through the lens of intergenerational conflict and the transmission of violence based on the research by Eichelsheim, et al. (2019), by letting the past be the past and looking forward for the local young adults but also by showing that the memory of violence can still linger based on what the previous generations have taught these young men.

It can also be argued that these young men live under duress as based on the research of de Bruijn & Both (2018), as the Casamance Conflict can find its origins not only in 1982 but during the colonial era as well due to French influence. The conflict has also been normalised by many living in Ziguinchor as can be seen throughout the interviews and many think that they do not have a role or involvement in it. 

This normalisation should not mean that the individuals living in this crisis are passive actors however, as can be seen during the 2024 electoral crisis during which many young adults took to the streets to protest the decision of the government to postpone the presidential elections. These protests were predominantly in support of Ousmane Sonko, as many felt that this delay in the elections was aimed at making his party specifically. Throughout this research, it was possible to see parallels between the 2023 and 2024 crises and its consequences in Ziguinchor to the 1982 anti-government protest which was the catalyst for the Casamance Conflict. As in the 1970s and 1980s, many of the local youth saw the Casamance as being underdeveloped by the government, creating inequalities for those looking to enter the professional world or start a family. It can be argued that many locals of Ziguinchor feel like the region is still underdeveloped, and with Sonko’s promises to reduce this equality, he gained significant support in his home region. When he got arrested in 2023, young adults took to the street again, as well as in 2024, to defend Sonko and his ideas. As Vigh (2008) argues, the normalisation of crisis can also lead to an acute awareness in social change, such as the arrest of a local leader like Sonko, which can manifest itself in this case in the form of anti-government protests, like in 1982 and 2023-2024. 

I, therefore, argue that these youths might not be as passive in the Casamance Conflict as they think they are, although the word “conflict” in the traditional definition might not be as fitting anymore. Instead, they have adapted to new forms of actions for their region, such as their loyalty to Sonko in an attempt to create the integration they wish for and an official end to the hostilities. The question remains whether or not Sonko specifically, as a “son of the land”, will be able to create this dialogue and integration. In my assessment, this will be difficult to achieve. When looking at the history of the Casamance, cyclical crises have often been present in the region’s past. This can be combined with a certain aversion of the local population to the influence and control of people who are not native to the region, including European colonisers, Muslim warlords and Senegalese politicians. This brings me back to a quote from Ibrahim,, “to see the future, you need to understand our past”, “pour voir le futur, il faut comprendre notre passé”. As of the time of writing, full integration of the Casamance with the rest of Senegal still seems like it has a long road ahead, although efforts are being made.

This would be interesting to follow up with in future research, in the later years of the presidency and premiership of Diomaye and Sonko, to assess how the political, social and economic views of young adults in Ziguinchor have evolved and whether or not they feel like efforts have been made to integrate the region more. Additionally, analysing the thoughts on these matters of young adults in rural areas in the Casamance will also bring valuable insights into this topic, as those might differ from the thoughts of urban youths, especially closer to the areas with rebel presence. Finally, this research can be expanded upon by taking a bigger sample size of participants in the city as well.